Indian Stepwells

Steps to Water: The Forgotten Stepwells of India

Negotiating Space and Designing Water: The Historical Architecture of Indian Stepwells

There are more than 3,000 stepwells built between the 7^th and mid-19^th centuries which dot the semi-arid landscape of Gujarat and Rajasthan in western India, and several are located along trade routes that carry into Central Asia. These elaborate architectural wonders, usually from three to nine levels deep (20 to 25 meters), mark the invisible landscape of underground water, providing life and sustenance to villages and communities as well as cool shade for weary travellers. (Figure 1)

The gift of water in India is considered a pious act; consequently, many stepwells were funded by women and men of means (wealth) – kings, queens, merchants, and traders – often to honour a deceased relative or a deity - typically a female goddess. Indeed, water is largely associated with the feminine in India and stepwells were also special spaces for women, to fetch water, meet friends, and spend time away from the confines of home and domestic work. (Figure 2)

Most stepwells were sites of rites and rituals, prayers for health and fertility, offerings, and blessings sought for newly married couples. However, patterns of social differentiation marked access to many stepwells due to the caste system. Often well-diggers and water diviners came from socio-economic groups that were denied access to the community water assets they had helped build.

The construction of stepwells was a complicated and often dangerous process involving engineering decisions and determined masons. Indigenous knowledge and craftsmanship were passed on inter-generationally, but today there is the risk of losing forever such wisdom with the advent of modern water infrastructure.

Stepwells draw water from an underground aquifer. They are filled through a process of seepage wherein rainwater (monsoon run off), caught in a depression, percolates through fine silt. With its deep vertical shape, the stepwell protects its visitors from sun and hot winds, maintaining water at a constant temperature of approximately 13° Celsius. The colours of the stone used to build the stepwell also provide respite from the glare and the dry semi-arid landscape.

As a ritual site separate from a temple, the sculptures which dot each storey in a stepwell usually represent local gods and deities outside of the Hindu pantheon. Historians claim that because these sculptures mainly focused on village interests in terms of fertility or productivity, the wells were not destroyed by Muslim rulers. Indeed, the construction of wells continued under Islamic patronage between the 15^th and 18^th centuries as it helped them gain local popularity besides providing shade and shelter along important trade routes. 

The Emergence of Modern Water Systems and the Decline of Stepwells

While there are several accounts from European travellers in awe of the architectural ingenuity of stepwells, it was the development of piped water systems under British colonial rule and the notions of clean water and public hygiene that led to the disregard of these ancient structures.

Today there is no clear ownership of stepwells, and many have been made into community halls for celebrating marriages and festivals. Sadly, several have become sites for the dumping of garbage - including plastic water bottles. Only some of the most beautiful stepwells are protected by the Archaeological Survey of India.

In the old city of Jodhpur, Rajasthan, the recently restored Toorji ki Jhalra lies at the centre of the aptly named Stepwell Square - a popular meeting place for residents and tourists with cafes, galleries, and shops. Restoration work, supported by a public-private partnership from 2015, excavated more than 200 feet deep to discover intricate carvings, waterspouts and even the remnants of an old Persian wheel originally used to withdraw water. Built by a queen from the Marwar region in 1740, this stepwell is a clear example of the role of women in hydro-philanthropy. (Figures 3 and 4)

In 2018-19, an NGO based in Gujarat, called Samerth, revived four small old stepwells with community participation in the semi-arid region of Kutch. Today these stepwells provide water for domestic and livelihood purposes to 400 rural families, as well as for livestock and small enterprises in horticulture. The wells are maintained by local youth groups and water committees involving women members. Despite many obstacles, today a growing number of female water leaders and professionals are ensuring that their voices are heard in community water governance.

It's worth mentioning that India is amongst the world’s largest extractor of groundwater: between 2007-2017, the groundwater level declined by 60% approx. This has significant implications for water security, people’s nutrition, and meeting basic human needs. Groundwater sources also suffer contamination from agricultural and industrial run-off. Legally, groundwater rights are a contentious issue today and attempts to regulate groundwater extraction have been fraught with conflicts.

Recognising the importance of traditional water management systems, the Indian Ministry of Water Resources (Jal Shakti) has been investing resources to restore aquifers as part of the mission Jal Jeevan (‘water and life’) launched in 2019. However, restoration of stepwells is a complex process and requires a multi-disciplinary approach including engineers, conservation architects, hydrologists, donors, local associations and the civil society.

Copyright: Sara Ahmed, Director and founder of the Living Waters Museum, Pune, India / The Global Network of Water Museums (WAMU-NET).